The Tabularium

We continue to explore the Roman Forum. In our photo below we see the Tabularium, the large building in the back.

Tabularium in Roman Forum. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

“Tabularium” is a term for a record building. A number of other tabularia were scattered around Rome and other ancient Roman cities, but this article is about the prototype example.

The Tabularium was the official records office of ancient Rome, and also housed the offices of many city officials. Situated within the Roman Forum, it was on the front slope of the Capitoline Hill, below the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, to the southeast of the Arx and Tarpeian Rock.

Within the building were the remains of the temple of Veiovis. In front of it were the Temples of Vespasian & Concord, as well as the Rostra and the rest of the forum. Presently the Tabularium is only accessible from within the Capitoline Museum, although it still affords an excellent panoramic view over the Forum.

The Tabularium was first constructed around 78 BC, by order of M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus. It was later restored and renovated during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, about 46 AD. (Wikipedia).

The lower level, the gray portion, is the Roman period; upper level was built later.

In a entry entitled “Obtaining Citizenship,” (Roman citizenship) F.F. Bruce is referenced as stating

that legislation at the turn of the first century A.D. called for a legitimately born child of Roman citizens to be registered within thirty days of birth. Children born in the provinces would be legally acknowledged (professio) before the Roman provincial authority at the public record office (tabularium publicum). The professio was then entered in the register (album professionum). We do not know if Paul’s birth was before or after this legislation, but some such formal procedure had to have been in effect earlier. At regular intervals a citizen’s name, age, status and property holdings would thereafter be recorded by census. (Dictionary of New Testament Background: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship.)

At right in the photo you can see the Arch of Septimius Severus, dedicated in AD 203.

*******

At present I am en route to Cyprus to join Ferrell Jenkins for a few days of photographing biblical sites, and biblically related sites, in Cyprus and Turkey.

Click on image for larger view.

Temple of Venus Genetrix

Our photo today shows the Forum of Caesar, located in the north-east corner of the Roman Forum. Construction of Caesar’s Forum was begun in 54 BC. Three remaining columns indicate the location of the Temple of Venus in Caesar’s Forum.

Temple of Venus Genetrix, located in Forum of Caesar, Rome. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

The temple was introduced at a slightly later stage, having been vowed by Caesar the night before the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, during  his civil war with Pompey, to win over Pompey’s favored goddess Venus Victrix, though when inaugurated in 46 BC (while still unfinished) it actually honored Venus as Venus Genetrix, “universal mother,’ from which Julius Caesar’s family (and thus all the emperors from August to Nero) claimed descent. (Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide, p.150).

Here is a close-up of the columns:

Temple of Venus Genetrix, close-up of columns. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

The Temple of Venus Genetrix contained an important collection of statues, paintings and engravings. A gilded statue of Cleopatra VII was erected, setting a precedent for dedications to notable women in the precinct. Paintings in the forum included one of Medea, mythological Greek hero of Euripides’ play Medea, as well as one of Ajax, mythological Greek hero of Sophocles’ Ajax, done by Timomachus. Perhaps more personal to Caesar were six collections of engraved gems. These surpassed in number the collection of Mithridates dedicated by Caesar’s rival Pompey. It is not known where or how Caesar obtained these six collections. (Wikipedia).

The location of a temple at the end of a long enclosure was a practice borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. This area suffered fire damage in AD 80; the temple was later rebuilt by Domitian and subsequently restored by Trajan.

Click on images for larger view.

The Roman Forum

The Roman Forum was in ancient times at the very hub of western civilization.

Roman Forum At Night. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

The Roman Forum (Latin: Forum Romanum, Italian: Foro Romano) is a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum. It was for centuries the center of Roman public life: the site of triumphal processions and elections, venue for public speeches, criminal trials, and gladiatorial matches, and nucleus of commercial affairs. Here statues and monuments commemorated some of the city’s most notable figures. Located in the small valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of architectural fragments and intermittent archeological excavations attracting numerous sightseers (Wikipedia).

It was here at the Forum, located between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, that justice was dispensed during the days of the Roman Republic and Empire (509 BC – AD 476). It is thought by some scholars that Paul’s appeal before Caesar would have been heard at the Basilica Julia.

Click image for larger view.

Emperor Galba: The Year of the Four Emperors

Numerous factors came into play that resulted in Galba’s becoming Rome’s sixth emperor. When Nero died in AD 68, the senate pronounced Galba emperor. Nymphidius Sabinus, prefect of the praetorian guard, had bribed his men to abandon their loyalty to Nero. Galba thought the bribe to the guardsmen had been extreme, and refused to pay the promised bonuses.  This of course alienated the soldiers from Galba.

Roman Emperor Galba. Reigned June 68-January 69. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Our photo was taken last month at the Vatican Museum.

On January 15, 69, Galba was murdered by soldiers in the Roman Forum. The historian Tacitus stated that Galba “possessed the makings of a ruler–had he never ruled.” His is a study of what might have been.

AD 69 was the Year of the Four Emperors: Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian.

********

We are currently doing our Visualized Survey of the Bible in historic Jonesboro, TN, the oldest town in Tennessee. David Wheeler is the preacher here. We are close to North Carolina and to Virginia. Beautiful country.

********

Dr. James Hodges passed away this past Tuesday night, April 10. He had been a professor of biblical studies at Florida College in Temple Terrace, FL., for many years. Forty years ago I studied archaeology under him; at that time there were two semesters: Old Testament and New Testament Archaeology. I appreciated his scholarship, and thought highly of him.

Arch of Titus

The Arch of Titus was built to commemorate Titus’ defeat of Jerusalem which took place in AD 70.

Arch of Titus. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

The Latin inscription at the top reads, “The Senate and People of Rome, to Divus Titus, son of Divus Vespasian, Vespasian August.” (The title Divus indicates that the arch was erected after Titus’ death).

Inscription on Arch of Titus. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Titus died at the young age of 50 in AD 81. Deification of the Roman Emperors took place after death. His deified figure is depicted on the underside of the archway. He is portrayed flying heavenward on the back of an eagle.

Underside of Arch of Titus. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Note the detail of the center coffer of the coffering.

Detail of deified figure of Titus. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

The arch was built in AD 81-82 by Titus’ brother, the Emperor Domitian.

A previous post on the Arch of Titus appeared here.

Click on images for larger view.

Link to Italy Tour Photos

One of our tour members, Jared Hagan, of Colorado, has posted a great representative sampling of his photos from our recent Italy tour.

Panorama of Amalfi Coast. Photo by Jared Hagan.

You may see Jared’s photos here. These photos are outstanding; many of these would be useful in biblical teaching. Included are several panoramic views, such as that above of the Amalfi Coast, as well as night shots. This view is of the town of Amalfi as seen from the pier; the Amalfi Cathedral is in the right center.

Click image for larger view.

Emperor Claudius, cont’d.

Our photo today features a statue of the Emperor Claudius, taken last week at the Vatican Museum in Rome.

Statue of Emperor Claudius. Vatican Museum. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Museum info placard: “Found at Lanuvio in 1865, this piece originally decorated the theatre in this Roman settlement. Claudius, emperor from  37 (sic) to 54 AD, is shown as Jupiter, wearing the civil crown of oak leaves and with the eagle at his feet.”

Claudius,

(1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy. Because he was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, his family ostracized him and excluded him from public office until his consulship, shared with his nephew Caligula in 37. Claudius’ infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges of Tiberius and Caligula’s reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to his being declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula’s assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family.

Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Empire conquered Thrace, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia and Judaea, and began the conquest of Britain. He took a personal interest in law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. However, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position; this resulted in the deaths of many senators. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion. After his death in 54, his grand-nephew and adopted son Nero succeeded him as Emperor (Wikipedia).

Scroll down and read our previous post to see some scriptural reverences to Claudius in the NT book of Acts.

Click on image for larger view.

In the Reign of Claudius

In the early days of the New Testament church, there was a prophet named Agabus in Antioch of Syria. He “stood up and began to indicate by the Spirit that there would certainly be a great famine all over the world. And this took place in the reign of Claudius” (Acts 11:28). Claudius reigned AD 41-54. Claudius was Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus.

He is again mentioned in Acts 18:2-3. The context is that of Paul’s labor of preaching the Gospel in Corinth:

And he found a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, having recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had commanded all the Jews to leave Rome. He came to them, and because he was of the same trade, he stayed with them and they were working, for by trade they were tent-makers.

This edict which expelled the Jews from Rome was issued in AD 49.

Emperor Claudius. Vatican Museum. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

In his book, The Roman Emperors, Michael Grant writes:

Claudius, we are told by the biographer Suetonius, was completely heterosexual–a rare phenomenon among Roman rulers. He was tall and well build and had an impressive face and handsome white hair. However, he also stammered, slobbered, ran at the nose, suffered from a persistent nervous tic, and frequently ate and drank himself into a stupor. He slept badly at night, but during the daytime would often nod off while presiding over a lawsuit. Pliny the elder added that the corners of his eyes were covered by hoods of flesh, streaked with small veins and sometimes suffused with blood (p.33).

Not the most complimentary of descriptions. We have an earlier article w/photos re: Roman Emperors during the Gospels and Acts here. Click image for larger view.

Pantheon by Night

We had the occasion to do a few night shots while in Rome. The Pantheon was built to honor all gods of Rome. It was rebuilt (having previously burnt) by Emperor Hadrian AD 126. The dome measures 142 feet high by 142 feet wide, and was the largest freestanding dome until the 20^thcentury.

Pantheon at Night. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

The twelve pantheon deities in Roman mythology were Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Minerva, Venus, Mars, Apollo, Diana, Mercury, Vesta, Ceres and Vulcan.

Pantheon in Rome. At left is a portion of the Fontana del Pantheon. Photo by Leon Mauldin.

Click on images for larger view.

Safely Back Home

I’m happy to report that my group had a safe return flight back to the states today. Three of our number stayed an extra day and are to fly back tomorrow.

A great trip, lots of good memories; good folks to share the experience with.

For tonight I’ll share a group photo that was made yesterday morning. This is along the Via Sacra. You can see the Arch of Titus in the distance. You can also see the beautiful weather I’ve referenced more than once during this trip.

Group Shot in Rome, with Arch of Titus in Background.

Click on image for larger view.